Discussion Board 3-2 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Discussion Board 3-2 - Assignment Example to act out of wishes of other people and the mere fact that they are used to doing it over a long period they often face a major challenge of determining their real self . This means they lack the inherent human tendency to grow to a full potential in constructive and positive way. However, PC provides the best opportunity for therapists to help such kind of clients explore more of their real self and finally become real by overcoming their difficulties and shaping their destiny owing to the fact that it calls for unconditional acceptance, genuineness and empathy with clients. Existential theory (ET) is appropriate for people with terminal illnesses. Individuals suffering from terminal illnesses often lack courage and determination, which according to ET are valuable attributes of human beings. This involves around the willingness of an individual to face his/her own anxiety about not being. Terminally ill people unlike healthy people are always faced with the biggest challenge of being in a position to deal with anxiety, which considered one of the inescapable parts of being human. This anxiety is often brought about by awareness of death. From the ET perspective awareness of ultimate concern, specifically death often raises anxiety (Murdock, 2013). Existential approach to counseling is the best therapy for terminally ill patients because it strives to deal with the major themes of human existence, which include freedom, death, meaning, and isolation. All these themes are evident in the lives terminally ill patients. Gestalt Theory (GT) is most appropriate for clients with marriage problems. Couples with marriage squabbles are renowned for having mixed options about whether to continue being in the relationship or quit it and these options often leaves them in a dilemma. GT is the best therapy for couples in marriage wrangles considering that it emphasizes on individual choices and responsibility. GT is a vital counseling approach that seeks to

Ability to recall from memory an event Essay Example for Free

Ability to recall from memory an event Essay A study by Loftus and Palmer (1974) into the accuracy of Eye Witness Testimony aimed to find out if changing the wording of a question could distort ones ability to recall from memory an event. They showed their participants a series of car crash videos before asking them to fill out a questionnaire. One of the most important questions included asking the participants what speed the cars were travelling at. They used an independent measures design to divide the participants into 5 conditions: Smashed, Collided, Bumped, Hit, Contacted. The results from this experiment provide good research into accuracy of eyewitness testimony because it found that by changing the wording of a question, it significantly influenced the speeds given by the participants. For example, those in the smashed condition provided the highest average of speed of 40.8mph, whilst those in the contacted conditions average were merely 31.8mph. Similarly, when called back a week later and asked if any broken glass was seen, they found that although there wasnt any present, 32% in the smashed condition said they had seen broken glass. Loftus and Palmer therefore concluded that by using the word smash it gives suggestions of strong impact and thus shows that leading questions have an impact on the accuracy of eyewitness ability to re-call situations. The strengths from this study include providing useful insight for the police so they know that when interviewing witnesses they should be aware of the way they phrase their questions to ensure the memory of the witness isnt distorted in any way. Similarly, it shows that juries should be thoughtful before accepting the validity of a witness when listening to eye witness testimonies.  On the other hand there are also weaknesses to this study. Firstly, it lacks mundane realism and ecological validity because the film shown has less emotional impact than a real life situation would and the participants knew they were about to watch a film so thus transferred their full attention to the video, whereas in real life they would be taken by surprise. Similarly, contradictory evidence from Yuille and Cutshall (1986) weakens the credibility of this study. They interviewed people that had witnessed an incident where someone was shot dead and fatally injured and found that the witnesses accounts were not influenced by the leading questions and were in fact very clear. This suggests that more intense incidents perhaps improve ability of re-call. Other psychological research into anxiety and violence tells us more about accuracy of eye witness testimony. Yerkes-Dodson Law for example believed that an increase in arousal increases performance up to a certain point, which they called optimum level. They believed that once arousal when higher or lower than this level it would affect memory performance. This is supported by Peters (1988) who found that those receiving inoculations in a clinic (an anxiety generating event) found it difficult in accurately identifying the nurse who issued their jab. One can conclude that this was due to the high levels of arousal surrounding the participant during the time of the jab. Moreover, researcher has been conducted into whether attention focus or anxiety was the sole reason behind poor recall. Loftus Burns (1982) found that details of less-violent crimes were more accurate than details of highly violent crimes. Whilst Clifford scott (1978) found that witnesses to violent incidents generally re-call less than witness to non violent, regardless of whether a weapon was used. This shows that the level of violence involved in the incident had a strong influence on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony. Lastly, there is also research into how age affects accuracy of eyewitness testimony. Studies have shown that children are more likely to get influenced if tested on eye witness testimony than adults due to things such as language ability or memory processes. Evidence into language ability comes from Goodman and Schaaf (1997) who found that the more complex the question, the less accurate the answer given by the child. This suggests that one aspect of ensuring that eyewitness testimony remains accurate is to not test the child on skills that they are not fully developed in yet e.g. complex language. This is backed by a study by Ceci et al (2000) who found that children aged between 3-4 years were more influenced by leading questions. Research into memory processes shows that children may lack detail but not accuracy when it comes to re-call, which was found by Goodman and Reed (1986). Similarly, Memon et al (2003) studied the accuracy of young and older eye witnesses found that after 35 minutes there was no difference in accuracy of identification however, after 1 week, the older generation worsened significantly more than the younger generation.  To conclude, there has been a great deal of research into the accuracy of eye witness testimony and this has shown that there are many things that influence someones ability to re-call a situation accurately. Therefore, one could say that Eye witness testimony isnt the most accurate method.

Changing Rights Freedoms of Aboriginal People in Australia

Changing Rights Freedoms of Aboriginal People in Australia OUTCOMES ASSESSED HT5-2: sequences and explains the significant patterns of continuity and change in the development of the modern world and Australia HT5-3: explains and analyses the motives and actions of past individuals and groups in the historical contexts that shaped the modern world and Australia HT5-6: uses relevant evidence from sources to support historical narratives, explanations and analyses of the modern world and Australia HT5-7: explains different contexts, perspectives and interpretations of the modern world and Australia HT5-8: selects and analyses a range of historical sources to locate information relevant to an historical inquiry HT5-9: applies a range of relevant historical terms and concepts when communicating an understanding of the past HT5-10: selects and uses appropriate oral, written, visual and digital forms to communicate effectively about the past for different audiences In this task you will be assessed on how well you: Show an understanding of the Changing Rights Freedoms of Aboriginal People in Australias history. Present evidence reliant upon the topic you have studied in class during Term One, as well as your own research. This will include the impact of European occupation of Australia; Human Rights; legislation pertaining to Aboriginal Australians from Settlement to the current day. The ability to examine history through a multi-modal presentation. DESCRIPTION OF ACTIVITY This assessment will be in THREE PARTS as outlined below. The year 2017 has seen controversy emerge surrounding the celebration of Australia Day on January 26th. This date coincides with arrival of the First Fleet and the beginning of the loss of rights and freedoms of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. In order to explain to the Australian public why members of the Australian public have protested and campaigned to change the date of Australia Day, Triple Js Hack program has invited you on to the program to provide an explanation of this issue. You have been provided with the questions prior to your interview in order to prepare your responses. Complete the scaffolded transcript attached which will form the majority of your response to the interview. You must include a Harvard style bibliography. TO BE SUBMITTED: THURSDAY, 2 MARCH 2017 Record your response using a recording device and upload to OneNote/Stile (per teachers instruction). Your verbal response is an audio recording of your transcript and must be no longer than 5 minutes in length. TO BE SUBMITTED: THURSDAY, 2 MARCH 2017 You will complete a source analysis (ADAM PRU) of one source during class time in week 6, answering an unseen question. The source will be directly related to what you have studied for Parts A and B. TO BE COMPLETED IN CLASS: MONDAY, 6 MARCH 2017 TRANSCRIPT Transcript of Triple Js Hack program featuring JITHIN ABRAHAM Presenter: Recent protests and demonstrations have occurred on Australia Day 2017 (26th January) in opposition to the celebration of Australia Day on this date. Why do you think this is? [Jithin]: Well as we all know Australia day is well known for Captain Cooks arrival of the First Fleet but, in truth what many of us dont know is on that same day is what aboriginals call invasion day. This day symbolizes the denial of rights and freedoms of aboriginal people. Just as Paul Keating said, we failed to make the most basic human response and enter into their hearts and minds (Redfern speech). During this timeframe, indigenous Australians have experienced discrimination, inequality and lack of opportunity. Shane Howard in Solid Rock sang Wasnt long before they felt the sting White man, white law, white gun. To many Aboriginals this day is very little about celebrating and rather about remembering of a deep loss. A Loss of their land, family, and the right to practice their culture. Presenter: So what was the nature of the contact between the first settlers and Aboriginal Australians? [Jithin]: Um, it seems to me the early European settlers were just as curious as aboriginals. For instance, Captain Cook wrote: I cannot tell if these natives are the most miserable, or the happiest people on earth. The aborigines were a peaceful and nomadic group of natives. We know the English were told be at good terms between aboriginals. But gradually we realize the strong connection indigenous Australians had with the land was being disrespected as White settlement expanded. Without doubt, we understand white settlers felt vastly superior to the indigenous population leading to violence, prejudice and racism. Presenter: Can you explain to the audience the impact this would have had on Aboriginal Australians at this time? Maybe this is why it has been referred to as Invasion Day? [Jithin]: So, we understand white settlement had a dark and devastating impact on aboriginal Australians. Many aboriginals were forced off their ancestral land and became displaced. This led them to new diseases introduced by settlers, which they had had no immunity too. Just like Djinyini Gondarra said The land is my mother. Like a human mother, the land gives us protection, enjoyment and provides our needs. Due to this, they were unable to access food and water, which made them more fragile and powerless. Also during this period violent conflict between settlers arose causing many heartless deaths. The impact of white settlers resulted in a drastic decline in the indigenous population. Presenter: You mentioned the government policy of protectionism, what was this exactly? [Jithin]: Yeah, the policy of protectionism ran for around 68 years and the main idea behind it was to control and separate aboriginal people from the white population and from each other. The policy of protectionism placed restrictions that denied their independence, freedom and basic human rights. Rights such as the where aboriginal people should live were denied and instead, the government directed how aboriginal people should live. The freedom to express their traditional customs were banned. The protector was the legal owner of all personal property rightfully owned by the aboriginal workers. Spending money even to buy basic items was restricted. The freedom to marry whoever had to be granted by white superiors and traditional names were refused. We can clearly understand this policy was very RACIST towards aboriginals. Presenter: Can you just outline for the audience the purpose of reservations and missions during this time period? Who were they administered by [Jithin]: Reserves and missions were enforced by their so-called white protectors. This meant approval was needed to enter or leave fenced areas. By doing this they excluded aborigines from cities and towns, which achieved their purpose of separating aboriginals from the white population. White superiors were strict and conditions inside these reserves were extremely harsh. Just as R. Broome said, It was evident at one point the reserves superintendents were at once policeman, judge and jury. Presenter: The toll on the Aboriginal population of Australia must have been horrendous. What were some of the consequences of this policy? [Jithin]: It was clear that the policies of protection had led to the dispossession, despair and a rapid decline in the size of the Aboriginal population. An Increase in infant mortality, suicide and life expectancy had a great impact. Harsh living conditions directed them to drink and most children lost links with their family and land. Many aborigines missed out on being educated in the language, culture and traditions of their people. Also,numerous mental health problems arose during the lifetime of aboriginal children. Presenter: You mentioned assimilation earlier in the program, what was this? Was it another policy put in place by the government? [Jithin]: Once the government understood the protection policy wasnt going as planned, with expenses and maintenance in running reserves and missions. The way forward was to absorb aborigines into towns and cities and the wider white community. By doing this Aboriginals would lose their cultural background but instead have their status raised. As part of Assimilation, the certificate of exemption was introduced and it required a denial of all cultural identity. It was only accepted to aborigines who were considered as detribalised and which have worked for the white man. Presenter: What would become of full blood Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people during this period? [Jithin]: Well, full blood aboriginals were excluded from white society and placed in reserves and missions. Where they were ignored and left to die out alongside their culture. All opportunities were put back and they relied on each other to sustain. Presenter: And what about those who were deemed half-caste? [Jithin]: As part of assimilation half-castes were absorbed into the wider white community. In promise of a simpler lifestyle away from the harsh conditions found in reserves. But instead they were seen by the assumption of black inferiority and white superiority. Presenter: Just for the benefit of those listeners who have just tuned in, would you mind just defining the term the Stolen Generation? [Jithin]: The stolen generation were identified as those who were of aboriginal origin and were taken away from their families to be put into church missions, foster families and institutions. Under the act of government. Presenter: It sounds as though the impact of this policy was devastating to the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities. Can you explain this impact for our listeners out there? [Jithin]: When aboriginal people arrived in towns and cities and the wider white community, they came up against racism and discrimination. Aborigines were rather excluded from hotels and bars, they could only use swimming pools at certain times and sit in certain places at the cinemas. The most terrible part of the assimilated policy was that it led to children being taken away from their parents and families to be put into foster homes. These were known as the stolen generation. Presenter: Do you have an example from the material you have come across from a victim of the Stolen Generation? What was their experience? [Your Name]: Presenter: By todays standards, wouldnt these policies have been a breach of the Declaration of Human Rights? Do you mind just explaining, say three rights that these policies would have contravened? [Jithin]: Yes, they definitely would have breached the declaration of human rights. These policies have violated rights such asà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Um, all adults have the right to marriage and to raise a family. Everyone has the right to an adequate standard of living for themselves and their family. And we are all equal before the law and entitled to equal protection of the law. Presenter: Wow, some powerful stuff. No wonder that some people are upset with our current celebration of Australia Day on the 26th January. But this isnt the first time people have protested against the abuse of rights and freedoms of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders is it? For the benefit of the audience could you please outline one of these protests? (Who, what, when, where, why) [Your Name]: Presenter: Thank you so much for your time today on Hack. Heres hoping the information you have provided has enlightened some of the more ignorant corners of Australian society. HARVARD STYLE BIBLIOGRAPHY Jens Korff. 2017. Australia Day Invasion Day. [ONLINE] Available at: https://www.creativespirits.info/aboriginalculture/history/australia-day-invasion-day. [Accessed 18 February 2017 Paul Keating. 1992. Transcript. [ONLINE] Available at: https://antar.org.au/sites/default/files/paul_keating_speech_transcript.pdf. [Accessed 22 February 2017]. Shane Howard. 1982. Lyrics. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.top40db.net/lyrics/?SongID=83327. [Accessed 22 February 2017]. Skwirk. 2016. First contact with Europeans. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.skwirk.com/p-c_s-17_u-455_t-1228_c-4698/first-contact-with-europeans/wa/first-contact-with-europeans/aboriginal-people-and-torres-strait-islanders/contact-with-europeans-the-effects. [Accessed 22 February 2017]. Skwirk. 2017. Impact of European settlement on Indigenous people. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.skwirk.com/p-c_s-56_u-426_t-1075_c-4149/WA/10/Impact-of-European-settlement-on-Indigenous-people/_tb-v. [Accessed 23 February 2017]. Nature and Mind. 2014. Quotes. [ONLINE] Available at: https://mindofnature.wordpress.com/2014/07/30/ten-australian-aboriginal-quotes-and-sayings-on-spirituality-nature-and-humanity/. [Accessed 24 February 2017]. R. Broome, Aboriginal Australians Black responses to white Dominance, 1788-1980, Allen Unwin, Sydney, 1982, pp. 178-9 Skwirk. 2016. Life on the reserves. [ONLINE] Available at: http://www.skwirk.com/p-c_s-14_u-120_t-327_c-1125/life-on-the-reserves/nsw/history/changing-rights-and-freedoms-aboriginal-people/the-aboriginal-experience. [Accessed 26 February 2017].

The Fragile Being Essay -- Developing Countries, Inadequate Access to

Women and men deserve equitable opportunities to achieve a reasonable standard of a healthy living. However, in developing countries, the interplay of various economic, social, cultural and biological factors render women underprivileged to attain their rights to decent nutrition, health care services and health information. Nevertheless, some issues affecting women’s health are shared, in part, by the opposite gender. Inadequate access to nutritious food, and the resulting malnutrition, is perhaps the greatest dilemma for the health of women in developing countries. Indeed, undernutrition is the leading risk factor of under-five mortality in girls, accounting for around seven deaths per thousand children in low- and middle-income countries [1]. Rising food prices, climate change, wars and conflict have caused unprecedented food insecurity in various parts of the developing world [2]. It has been estimated that nearly 20% of the population of developing countries is affected by chronic food deficit [3]. The Global Hunger Index reports that 969 million people live on less than US $ 1 per day, and that 923 million people go hungry everyday [2]. Though malnutrition is a concern for both sexes, women are more vulnerable due to gender-based inequitable access to food [1]. Women are also more likely to suffer the repercussions of food insecurity because of their biological roles during pregnancy and lac tation and the resultant increase in nutritional demands. In pregnant women, malnutrition stunts the immune system and homeostatic mechanisms of the body, leaving them vulnerable to developing infections and maternal complications such as miscarriage and obstructed labor, besides increasing the risk of maternal mortality [4]. Cont... ...throughout the ages, neglect of their health needs and concerns has caused them to endure immense suffering. Further, the health of women is closely intertwined to the well-being of the next generation of children. Malnourished women are likely to have poor birth outcomes, in particular, intra-uterine growth retardation, preterm birth and infants with low birth weight [4,12]. Such infants also have a higher neonatal and infant mortality compared to those born to healthy mothers [4]. The issue of women’s health thus has an enormous impact on the society as a whole and needs to be addressed as a priority. To what extent this issue has actually been prioritized, remains a question unanswered. Women deserve to be afforded treatment at par with their male counterparts to safeguard their fragile existence, and to give them a just opportunity to excel in their abilities.

Virtual Banks

Introduction Continuous innovation in technology has altered the way in which business is conducted in each industry. This is especially true for that of financial services or banking. The banking world has evolved tremendously since its inception with most recent trend being towards the development of an online platform. Most Institutions currently offer financial solutions via branches as well as over the Internet. The appeal of online activity has in turn led emergence of online only or â€Å"virtual† banks. Virtual Banks DefinedA virtual bank is one that exists online only in which nearly all financial transactions are conducted over the Internet. The differentiating factor for online banks is the absence of physical branches and ATMs. Also referred to as direct banks, these entities offer identical products and services to its compared to traditional â€Å"brick and mortar† institutions. This includes opening checking and high interest savings accounts with which b ill payments, transfers, deposits and withdrawals can be made. Client’s can access money via partner ATMs or attain cash back at point of sale at certain merchants.Deposits are made directly, by mailing a check, and partner ATMs. Moreover, investments, lending products and professional advice can be acquired through the respective website. Furthermore, most virtual banks are insured by the FDIC (Federal Depository Insurance Corporation). Brief History Banks began to move online with the commercialization of the Internet in the 1990s. Traditional brick and mortar banks were seeking ways to reduce costs simultaneously providing quality products and services. The solution was discovered by the development of an online system.Considering the success of the launch of online banking, institutions began to expand their online presence through website innovation and improvements as well as by diversifying their online product and services offerings. Following the establishment of an easily accessible and profitable online banking structure, virtual online only banks emerged. These entities were successful in overhead cost reduction having only to support the costs of a single online computer network rather than those of operating physical branches and ATMs. This enabled the provision of higher returns to their clients.The first fully functional direct bank insured by the FDIC was the Security First Network Bank, based in Atlanta, It began operations on October 18, 1995 and was eventually bought out despite having been the first to prove the viability of virtual banks. Competition The rise of online only banks has stimulated further competition within the financial industry. These institutions face heavy competition from traditional counterparts who excel in both online and personal customer service experience. Each provides respective benefits and drawbacks however; clients may choose to utilize both options and make transfers between the two.Major Players Ther e are several major players within the virtual banking segment of the financial services industry. INGDirect, is currently ranked first amongst competitors. HSBCDirect follows ranked second. Others include: Ally Bank, Banco Best, Discover Bank, First Direct etc. Use Amongst Canadians: Some Statistics Online banking is experiencing continuous and rapid growth. It has become the most popular means of conducting financial transactions. According to the Canadian Bankers Association, more than half of Canadians have used online banking within the last year.Its use is increasing amongst all age groups as the ease and convenience of these innovations is valued. ? 47 per cent of Canadians now use the Internet as their main means of banking, up from only eight per cent 12 years ago. ? 53 per cent of young Canadians between the ages of 18 and 34 say online is their main way of banking as do 45 per cent of those 55 or older. ? 41 per cent of Canadians report that their use of online banking ha s increased, while only four per cent say it is on the decline. (According to the Canadian Bankers Association) Benefits vs.Drawbacks of Virtual Banks Online banking websites are widely used in today’s society. The way in which individuals conduct transactions is dependent on accessibility and time constraints. One must also consider desired return and the importance of lower interest rates. Customers must weigh the benefits and drawbacks of each option using these criteria when choosing between a traditional branch system and an online only bank. There are both advantages and disadvantages in respect to virtual banks Advantages There are several benefits to using an online only bank.These include convenience, higher returns, ease of use and environmental friendliness. A. Convenience Online only banks are convenient for those subject to time constraints such as working long hours, attending school and caring for a family. Most branches are limited to open hours of between 8 a m and 5 pm, and are closed on weekends. These conflict with the work and school hours of many people. For this reason, numerous individuals are unable conduct their required banking transactions at a branch. Moreover, branches may be difficult to reach for the elderly and physically impaired.Virtual banks solve these issues by being accessible and operable 24hours a day, 7 days a week. Further, with the development of smart phone applications, Virtual banks have become even more advantageous in terms of convenience and accessibility. With the creation of a bank application the customer can easily access his bank account balance with a touch on his phone. B. Higher Returns and Lower Transaction Fees Customers can benefit from competitive rates by bringing their business to virtual banks. Lower rates are offered on loans as well as higher returns on savings accounts and investments.Direct banks can afford to provide their customers with these advantages due to the reduction of overhea d costs caused by the elimination of branches and ATMs. These institutions spend significantly less on human resources and equipment than do traditional banks. In addition to competitive rates, virtual banks do not charge fees for financial transactions. A client may conduct an unlimited number of transfers, bill payments, deposits and withdrawals free of charge creating big savings for customers in turn. Compared to traditional banks, customers will pay less for more. C. Ease of UseThe ease of use of virtual banking products and services is another major benefit. This is facilitated by the clarity, design and value added features of the respective bank’s website. Opening an account can be easily done on the institutions’ website submitting all required documentation over the net. The steps for each desired transaction are included and help is provided upon request. Once familiar with the internet and website navigation, virtual banks are extremely easy to use. D. Envi ronmentally Friendly Finally, Online-only banks prove to be an eco friendly alternative to traditional institutions.Paper waste is almost entirely eliminated as all required documents are directly uploaded and submitted through the respective bank’s website. There is no longer the need for transportation lower fuel emitted by vehicles. Also, the elimination of branches and ATMs decrease requirements for technological equipment and thus lower energy consumption. Disadvantages Although the technological advancements of virtual banks have created much needed solutions for today’s banking industry, some of its benefits are offset by several drawbacks.These include; the lack of a personal experience, transaction problems, service issues, the learning curve and online security. A. Face-to-Face Banking Relationship Virtual banks eliminate the face-to-face relationship that is created in the traditional banking environment. Building a relationship with bank representatives suc h as account managers, loan officers or tellers facilitate the process in which customers fulfill banking needs and are important to many people. Bank representatives resolve issues such as changing terms in their banking agreements or reversing undeserved fees.As well, these representatives get to know their clients better, and are able to tailor the banking services to their unique needs and personal circumstances. B. Transaction problems Complex transactions or errors may require direct and timely assistance from bank representatives. A traditional bank can be called for support or a visit to the branch can quickly solve the issue at hand. Customers of virtual banks do not have the option of attaining timely aid, as this requires waiting on the phone for a representative in hopes of solving the issue at hand.C. Service Issues Another disadvantage stems from the lack of human resources amongst virtual banks. Regardless of accessibility, certain transactions may require signatures or stamps from a financial institution in order to be processed. These are transactions, which cannot be processed through a virtual bank. As well, traditional banks thrive on the provision of excellent customer service. This is a major factor in customer loyalty and retention as well the acquisition of new long-term client relationships.Virtual banks cannot compete on this matter as only standard services are provided to all clients equally over an impersonal online venue. D. Learning Curve Most of the individuals who visit a branch regularly will find the transition to virtual banks quite complex at first. This is due to the fact that virtual banking pages can be hard to navigate and might be complicated for those who are unfamiliar with the virtual bank page or the Internet in general. Consequently, time may be required for traditional bank users to adjust to this technologically advanced service.E. Online Security As a technological society, security has become a primary concern to all Internet users across the globe. Issues ranging from fraud to identity theft decrease consumer confidence in the Internet driven services offered in today’s economy. Virtual banks are governed by the same laws and regulations implemented by the FDIC within the traditional banking sector. Online banking accounts can be subject to hackers, phishing or malware that may disrupt processes or allow the processing of unauthorized activities within these accounts.Traditional banks offer solutions such as scanned copies of cleared checks to its clients in order to prevent fraud. Virtual banks cannot offer substantial record keeping measures as such to identify and prevent such interferences. Implementation of Virtual Banks in Canadian Banking System Given the advantages that online banks provide, it is widely believed that most of retail banking operations will be done through electronic means in the near future. Does that necessarily cause established banks in Canada to look outdated and force them to go out of business?In our point of view, those banks will remain the major players in the future and the only change that we believe is going to take place is the adaptation of these banks to changes in technology and emergence trends. Let’s recall the introduction of access cards in the banking system. Though this introduction brought a large amount of advantages with it, it was still confronted with considerable resistance. Today, we are to some extent in the same position. The trend of virtual banks is inevitably coming, but it also brings disadvantages into play, as previously discussed.Since it takes time for people to get comfortable with new innovations, banks can establish a plan with short and long term goals to accommodate the changes in the industry. We believe the plan below will help modernize the big banks in Canada towards the trend of Direct Banking. †¢ Create a parallel direct bank for the sole purpose of virtual banking Our fi rst suggested step is the creation of a banking line that solely operates online similar typical virtual banks. Customers are expected to move their funds from conventional accounts to the online-only accounts because of their convenience and advantages.The cost of maintaining such virtual accounts is considerably lower; hence banks can offer competitive rates as a tangible incentive for customers to switch to direct banking. †¢ Increase the number of ATM machines Banks should make it more convenient for their customers to access and deposit cash without having to go to a teller. ATM machines should be more available to stakeholders; either through direct investment of the bank or through outsourcing to one of the established ATM Machine providers operating in Canada.This was the strategy of American Direct Banks to ameliorate their service and attract even more customers. After all convenience is a key aspect clients look for when it comes to their banking choice. †¢ Redu ce the number of branches In order to meet required profit margins, and given the incurred expenses caused by the additional benefits they will be offering (more competitive rates), banks are expected to cut their costs. Since operations will take place in a virtual environment, brick and mortar branches will become less necessary.Banks at that point can start merging their branches and close-down others. Downsizing of some locations could also be an option. For the above plan to be successful, it is essential to monitor the change in consumer preferences and implement each step accordingly. After establishing a plan, it is essential to study the feasibility of it given the circumstances. The literacy rate in Canada has been 99% in 2003 and is close to perfect score nowadays (Gordon, 2003). Moreover, In 2010, close to 80% of Canadian households had access to the Internet (Statistics Canada Web, 2011).The country possesses one of the most advanced communication networks in the world making direct banking technically easy to introduce and more importantly, logical. References Canadian Bankers Association. How Canadians Bank. November 9, 2012. http://www. cba. ca/en/media-room/50-backgrounders-on-banking-issues/125-technology-and-banking. Accessed November 18th, 2012 Canadian Internet Use Survey, May 25th, 2011. Statistics Canada Web. http://www. statcan. gc. ca/daily-quotidien/110525/dq110525b-eng. htm, accessed November 18th, 2012. Gordon, Elaine H. Gordon, Edward E. (2003). Literacy in America: historic journey and contemporary solutions. New York: Praeger. p. 255. ISBN  0-275-97864-8. Investopedia. The Pros and Cons of Internet Banks. April 14, 2011. http://www. investopedia. com/articles/pf/11/benefits-and-drawbacks-of-internet-banks. asp. Accessed November 18th, 2012 Weisbaum, Herb. Looking for Better Rates? Visit a Virtual Bank. July 29, 2009. http://www. msnbc. msn. com/id/32206206/ns/business-consumer_news/t/looking-better-rates-visit-virtual-bank/#. U KRTuxzok1A. Accessed November 18th, 2012

Evolution of the Immune System

John Frelinger Dr. Travis Organic Evolution 30 April 2012 Evolution of the Immune System Animals are constantly bombarded by an immensely varied array of disease causing pathogens including bacteria, fungi, viruses and other parasites. The number of microbes living in the human body outnumber the actual human cells by a factor of 10, and for every single species of animal and plant on Earth, there are viruses that infect them. With the unrelenting threat of disease-causing pathogens all around us, and even within us, how can the constantly vulnerable organisms defend themselves?Evolution has provided an answer to this problem—the immune system. The immune system is a vastly complex orchestra of cells working together to help eliminate potentially harmful pathogens from the body. Some form of host defense is found in every multicellular organism, however there are myriad variations in the immune systems of different organisms. Vertebrates have evolved an acquired immune respons e, in which a specific immune system is activated to clear an infection that is initially controlled by a non-specific (innate) immune response.This highly adaptable system is important to the survival of vertebrate species. Surprisingly, however, 90% of animals (invertebrates) do not have this kind of response. Despite lacking a seemingly critical adaptation, invertebrates continue to survive and reproduce. Why does it appear necessary for vertebrates to have an acquired response in order to survive, but the more numerous invertebrate species do not? Research indicates that there is an evolutionary lineage of the immune system that stems from the split of invertebrates and vertebrates.Innate immunity, which is found in all animals, is assumed to be at the beginning of this evolutionary tree. After the diversification of species (vertebrates branching from invertebrates), mechanisms of immunity also diverged. In this paper I will first discuss the function of the innate immune syste m because of its older evolutionary history, followed by the adaptive immune response that evolved later in vertebrate lineages. I will then conclude by placing the development of the innate and adaptive immune system in an evolutionary context.Innate immunity is the first line of defense for an organism and is made up of elements that protect the organism from pathogens. Anatomical aspects such as skin act as an impermeable barrier to infectious pathogens. Chemical and biological factors, including anti-microbial peptides like defensins, are also used to inhibit bacterial growth and prevent colonization. Another immunological factor of the innate immune system are phagocytic cells (macrophages), which are cells that engulf and eliminate foreign pathogens.These cells operate using a variety of different and generalized receptors that recognize a broad range of molecular patterns expressed by pathogens that initiate phagocytosis. One such family of receptors, known as Toll-like Recep tors, recognizes common pathogen elements such as bacterial wall components or viral DNA sequences. This component is found in virtually every multicellular organism, ranging from sponges to humans (Muller and Muller 2003). Plants also express proteins that are very similar to toll-like receptors, indicating that this aspect of the innate immune system predates the divergence of plants and animals.The innate immune system is so valuable to an organism’s survival because it is always present and in many instances can prevent pathogen entry or replication. This, in turn, prevents a harmful infection from ever occurring inside the host. Although invertebrates do not have the acquired immune response, recent research has shown that their innate response is more complex than previously thought. Insects can activate their immune systems to remain in a higher state in order to prepare for a pathogen invasion.During bedbug mating, females are frequently injured in the process because males will stab a female to inject his sperm, infecting her with bacteria and exposing her to other potential infections. In response, females have evolved ways to enhance their immune system prior to mating in anticipation of pathogen invasion (Morrow and Arnqvist 2003). Bumblebees are capable of maintaining a heightened immune system in response to a prior pathogen invasion to aid in the prevention of future infections. Immunity such as this has been shown to pass down vertically to offspring, therefore increasing their fitness (Tyler et al. 006). Slugs have also evolved an interesting alternative response in the form of increased mutation rates of certain immune cell receptors, which allows their immune system to adapt to many foreign elements (Litman and Cooper 2007). While it is inherently different from the acquired immune response, this sensitive management of immune function was previously thought to be reserved as a characteristic of vertebrates and the adaptive immune res ponse. As vertebrates began to diverge and evolve from invertebrates, so too did the immune system.The new adaptive branch of the immune system originally conferred a new selective advantage for vertebrates because of its specificity and immense flexibility in recognizing new pathogens. The clonal selection theory, in which each lymphocyte clonally expresses a specific antigen receptor, can help explain how the immune system can express an extremely wide range of potential receptors capable of recognizing new pathogens. Lymphocytes are undifferentiated cells that ultimately become B-cells (Bone Marrow) or T-cells (Thymus) depending on where they migrate.B-cells possess a uniquely structured immunoglobulin molecule (antibodies exposed on outer surface) that recognizes and binds to a specific molecular counterpart. When a foreign antigen is bound to the antibody, it stimulates the replication of that specific B-cell with the aid of Helper T-cells, which enhance B-cell maturation. This process results in the clonal expansion of cells that recognize the original antigen and subsequent production of antibodies that help in the eradication of the pathogen. An important point of this process is that the pathogens select which lymphocytes expand.It also results in memory B-cells and T-cells that constitute a persistent immune memory for a particular antigen. This expanded pool of memory cells is activated upon a second exposure to the same pathogen, resulting in a much more rapid immune response to clear infection. Other types of T-cells are also produced during this process. For example, cytotoxic T-cells target and kill virally infected cells, while suppressor or regulatory T-cells are activated when the infectious pathogens are eliminated and signal the immune system to subside.Cells such as these also experience selective pressures–ones that react to self-tissue (and harm the host) would be selected against, while those that recognize pathogens would surviv e and replicate. The clonal selection theory addresses many aspects of vertebrate immunity, however, it does not explain all of the mysteries behind the variety of antibody generation. The sheer number of antibodies that can be produced and the finding that the acquired immune response can generate antibodies to manmade molecules that are not present in nature led scientists to explore how such diversity is generated.Research done by Susumu Tonegawa in the 1970’s indicated that B-cells have the ability to produce a huge number of antibodies due to a gene rearrangement process. B cells originally have many sets of gene segments (Variable, Diverse, and Joining) and over the course of its maturation reduce these segments to one of each type for the production of the antibody heavy chain. A similar process of gene rearrangement is involved for the production of the antibody light chain. The light chain and heavy chain proteins then assemble to form the complete antibody molecule that can specifically bind to an antigen.Two genes that are critical for this process to work are RAG1 and RAG2. These genes are known as recombination-activating genes and distinguish the vertebrate immune system from other lineages. These genes are critical to the process because they act as the excision and joining molecules that cut and knit back together the individual VDJ segments that make up the antibody. This results in the huge potential of diverse antibodies that can be produced—hundreds of millions of possible antibody types generated from a much smaller number of gene segments that can react with virtually any antigen.This sophisticated process may have originally been introduced by a mobile genetic element known as transposons. These transposable elements have the ability to excise themselves from one DNA sequence and incorporate themselves into another, very similar to the RAG1 and RAG2 gene functions. After the divergence of jawed and jawless vertebrates, a vi ral infection of the jawed lineage’s gametes may have introduced a transposon into their genome. (Thompson 1995). This may have provided the raw materials necessary to facilitate the development of adaptive immunity.The acquired response appears to have evolved from a single lineage because all vertebrates (excluding jawless fish) retain this RAG-mediated gene rearrangement system. The specificity of this kind of response may have been selected for because of its ability to recognize a diverse number of pathogens, but also because it could conserve more energy resources compared to the generalized defense of the innate response. The adaptive immune response is structured in such a way that it can respond to an almost infinite number of pathogens, while utilizing a relatively limited number of genes.Figure 1 illustrates a potential phylogeny based on some immune system adaptations previously discussed. Figure 1 (Reproduced from Litman and Cooper 2007). Although the vertebrate immune system is extremely adaptable to many potential threats, it is far from perfect. Epidemics such as the Bubonic Plague or the 1918 influenza killed millions of people. Similarly, when the Spanish colonized the New World, they also introduced pathogens that were devastating to the indigenous people.One of the major limitations of the acquired immune response is that it takes a relatively long time to respond after the initial exposure in order to be effective. This time is required because the lymphocytes must clonally expand before a pathogen can be eliminated. For example, in the case of the Native Americans, when they were exposed to the new pathogens, the infections spread to a portion of the population that was large enough to leave them unable to forage for food or to tend to the sick. As a result, it nearly wiped out the entire civilization.This limitation is significant as illustrated by these and many other historical epidemics. These difficulties have led scientists t o think more fully about the effectiveness of the vertebrate immune system. If the immune system has the potential to combat virtually any conceivable threat, why then can’t it always eliminate any potentially harmful pathogen? We also look to immune hypersensitivity and autoimmunity as potential drawbacks of the immune system, indicating further imperfections of the adaptation. When the immune system mistakenly targets self-tissue, it results in serious consequences for the organism.Concepts in evolutionary biology might help address these issues. In this context the immune system does not have to be inherently perfect by design because only some individuals of a population need to survive and reproduce for that lineage to continue. The variation introduced by the immune system generates the diversity necessary for a population to adapt to changing environmental pressures. As others have suggested, a zebra doesn’t have to outrun the lion, just the slowest member of th e herd (Hedrick 2004).The immune system is subjected to the same constraints as other characteristics in regards to natural selection. In this case even if a trait is not optimal, but helps the organism survive and reproduce, it will be selected for, regardless of any deleterious effects experienced post-reproduction. Many, but not all immunologists, believe the development of the adaptive immune system with gene rearrangement was a critical advance. It has been proposed that the development of the adaptive immune system was the â€Å"Big Bang† for the evolution of immune system (Travis 2009).This development might have also enabled the rapid expansion of vertebrates. Moreover, the idea that the adaptive immune system can generate receptors for molecules that are not yet present, makes it extremely flexible and has been called â€Å"forward thinking† (Travis 2009). Thus, while the immune system does not anticipate every change in organisms it is ready for them by const ructing a large repertoire of antigen specific receptors, which confers a big selective advantage. Others have suggested the adaptive immune system conserves resources, and thus is better than the innate system.In contrast, as noted earlier, invertebrates lack a fully functional adaptive immune system and are very successful. Moreover, others have argued that even if the immune system was an advantage, it was only temporary and short lived (Hedrick 2004). Another relevant issue deals with the concept of parasite and host co-evolution. This constant struggle is exemplified by a quote from Lewis Carroll’s â€Å"Through the Looking Glass†, â€Å"it takes all the running you can do, to keep in the same place†. This concept, originally introduced by Leigh Van Valen, has been termed the Red Queen hypothesis.According to this hypothesis, an improvement in fitness for one species will lead to a selective advantage for that species. However, since species are often coevo lving with one another, improvement in one species implies that it gains a competitive advantage over the other species, and thus has the potential to outcompete for shared resources. This means that fitness increase in one evolutionary system will tend to lead to fitness decrease in another system. The only way that a competing species can maintain its relative fitness is to improve on its own design.Although this theory was used to help explain the extinction of species and the evolution of sexual reproduction, it has been applied to many aspects of predator prey relationships including the development of the immune system. Because animals are constantly attacked by fast-adapting parasites, the host immune system cannot possibly gain an advantage over them. The evolution of the immune system is caused by the small advantages conferred as a result of variation in the recognition of pathogens.As suggested by Steven Hedrick, â€Å"by selecting for more elusive parasites, the immune system is ultimately the cause of its own necessity† (Hedrick 2004). Thus paradoxically, the immune system, since it places a strong selective pressure on pathogens and parasites, ultimately has become essential for vertebrates to survive. By placing selective pressure on parasites that can evolve much more rapidly than animals (due to their higher reproductive/mutation rate), it results in parasites that are increasingly more effective at infecting hosts of that species.In terms of the immune system, one strategy that parasites have developed is a means of altering their own antigens to become unrecognizable. In this way they escape the adaptive immune system by altering their structure. For example, trypanosomes can switch the major target antigen for antibodies, which they use as a strategy to extend the amount of time they reside in the host. This results in a more contagious host that will increase the spread of pathogens to new hosts (Stockdale et al. 2008).Similarly, be cause the HIV polymerase is very error prone with no proof reading mechanism, many mutations arise in the HIV proteins during its infection. While the adaptive immune system can make neutralizing antibodies, new variants arise that can no longer be recognized by the antibodies. These new variants have a selective advantage and escape, and thus the adaptive immune system  is always lagging behind. In terms of the host immune response, there is also an extremely high level  of polymorphism of major histocompatibility genes, which enable the population to respond to a wider array of antigens using T-cells.The benefit of this heterozygosity is that it allows the individual to respond to a wider variety of antigens. Moreover this diversity helps ensure that even though some individuals may perish, the particular pathogen will not be able to eliminate the entire population. Some infectious agents have even taken it a step further and evolved ways to utilize the host immune system to i ncrease their own fitness. For example, infections that result in pus filled cysts can be used to carry parasitic progeny and spread to new hosts when they burst.Even though this may help the host clear an infection, the pathogen can use this to increase its own fitness and infect more individuals. The Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) utilizes the host immune system by initially infecting macrophages, and subsequently T-cells, which the virus uses as a reservoir for reproduction and as a means to spread to many different tissues in the body (Orenstein 2001). It also serves the virus to target immune cells for infection because crippling the host immune response akes it easier for the virus to spread throughout the body and eventually to new hosts (due to the higher viral load). In this light, it is possible that invertebrates did not evolve the adaptive immune response because they may have never needed it. By lacking the ability to develop a â€Å"memory† for a particular pathogen, those pathogens did not evolve anti-immune mechanisms to counter the host immune response. An immune memory could lead to more devious pathogens and result in a more harmful infection in the future.This could have been a better strategy for invertebrates as it may have prevented the co-evolution of more virulent pathogens (Hedrick 2004). The immune system has a long evolutionary history in multicellular organisms. The innate immune system is a critical adaptation that helped these organisms survive the onslaught of parasites and pathogens. Vertebrates possess an adaptive immune response that allowed for the recognition of an almost infinite number of pathogenic antigens, however, it appears to have become a one-way road with the coevolution of pathogens.Once this adaptive system appeared in the vertebrate lineage, there was no going back. Because of the immense flexibility of the adaptive immune response, it places huge selective pressures on pathogens to constantly evolve new mechanisms of infecting hosts. 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